Structural Equation Modelling of Graph-Theoretic Classroom Seating Metrics as Predictors of Student Learning Engagement
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65141/jessah.v2i2.n2%20Keywords:
classroom seating arrangement, student engagement, teacher proximity, graph theory, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation ModelingAbstract
Classroom seating arrangement influences engagement through visibility, proximity, and interaction. This study applied a hybrid methodology combining graph theory and survey data to perform Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) in determining the best classroom structure that supports learning engagement in Philippine classrooms. traditional, window, and horseshoe layouts were compared in terms of degree and closeness centrality, high-degree frequency, and path length, while learning engagement was measured in terms of agentic, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional domains. Graph-theoretic measurements were simulated in GeoGebra in a 7×9-meter plane following the DepEd standard classroom size with a 1:36 student-teacher ratio. Statistical analysis showed that the Horseshoe layout produced the shortest path to the teacher (M = 3.93), the lowest number of interactions (M=4.50), and the lowest high-degree frequency (f=29) among all layouts. It also explained the strongest positive effect on learning engagement (? = 1.447, p < .001). Model fit indices indicated excellent validity (SRMR = 0.041). Findings demonstrate that engagement depends less on the number of peer links and more on physical proximity and teacher accessibility. The Horseshoe configuration optimizes these conditions by maintaining focus and balanced interaction. The study recommends that teachers adopt horseshoe seating layouts that enhance visibility and reduce off-task interaction to strengthen student engagement within existing classroom constraints, serving as a critical tool for evidence-based pedagogy.
References
Ahmad, C. N. C., & Amirul, N. J. (2017). The effect of the physical learning environment on students’ health, enjoyment, and learning. Jurnal Pendidikan Sains & Matematik Malaysia, 7(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.37134/jsspj.vol7.no1.4.2017
Baes, S. F. (2025). Synchronous online learning platforms and student engagement: Exploring high school learning experiences and environments in the Philippines using self-determination theory. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 21, Article 008. https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2026.21008
Byiringiro, E. (2023). Effects of classroom seating arrangement on the academic performance in mathematics of students in public day schools in Musanze District, Rwanda. Journal of Research & Innovation in the IIER, 7(4), 704–710. https://doi.org/10.59765/ylav4917
Cantero, J. M. M. (2017). Attraction factors into space as a required element of physical learning environment: A review. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1), 130–136. https://doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v2i11.1914
Cantero, J. M. M., Mira, R. G., & López-Chao, V. (2016). Influence of physical learning environment on students’ behavior and social relations. The Anthropologist, 25(3), 249–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2016.11892113
Correa, R., Lara, E., Pino, P., & Vera, T. (2017). Relationship between group seating arrangement in the classroom and student participation in speaking activities in EFL classes at a secondary school in Chile. Folios, 45(1), 145–158. https://doi.org/10.17227/01234870.45folios145.158
Galabin, N. D., Jr. (2024). Students’ satisfaction of learning space in St. Michael’s College, Iligan City. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 7(2), 1095-1098. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v7-i02-27
Gaytos, C. E. (2024). Seating arrangement and academic performance of Bachelor of Elementary Education students. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 26(2), 156-163. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13893752
Gremmen, M. C., van den Berg, Y. H. M., Segers, E., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2016). Considerations for classroom seating arrangements and the role of teacher characteristics and beliefs. Social Psychology of Education, 19, 749–774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-016-9353-y
Guardino, C., & Antia, S. D. (2012). Modifying the classroom environment to increase engagement and decrease disruption with students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17(4), 518–533. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/ens026
Gutierrez, A. (2022). The effects of various classroom seating arrangements on English learners’ academic achievement (University Honors Program Senior Project No. 31). Northeastern Illinois University. https://neiudc.neiu.edu/uhp-projects/31/
Hair, J. F., Jr., Matthews, L. M., Matthews, R. L., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). PLS-SEM or CB-SEM: Updated guidelines on which method to use. International Journal of Multivariate Data Analysis, 1(2), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMDA.2017.087624
Hardiansyah, F., & Ar, M. M. (2022). Enhancing students’ learning motivation through changing seats in primary school. Mimbar Sekolah Dasar, 9(1), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.53400/mimbar-sd.v9i1.43002
Keyes, T. S. (2019). A qualitative inquiry: Factors that promote classroom belonging and engagement among high school students. School Community Journal, 29(1), 171–200. https://www.adi.org/journal/2019ss/KeyesSS2019.pdf
Khaloufi, A. (2016). EFL classroom seating and anxiety reduction. Al-Tawasul, 46, 11–24. https://asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/41435
Khan, A. R., Alvi, A. A., & Kashar, M. S. (2023). Physical environment at university: Investigating the impact on students’ motivation and engagement. Annals of Human and Social Sciences, 4(3), 88-95. https://doi.org/10.35484/ahss.2023(4-iii)09
Kilbourne, J. R., Scott-Webber, L., & Kapitula, L. R. (2017). An activity-permissible classroom: Impacts of an evidence-based design solution on student engagement and movement in an elementary school classroom. Children, Youth and Environments, 27(1), 112–134. https://doi.org/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.27.1.0112
Lalanan, P. J. S., & Oco, R. M. (2025). ALS learning environment and learners’ engagement. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Analysis, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.47191/ijmra/v8-i04-58
Norazman, N., Ismail, A. H., Ja’afar, N. H., Khoiry, M. A., & Che Ani, A. I. (2019). A review of seating arrangements towards the 21st-century classroom approach in schools. Malaysian Journal of Sustainable Environment, 7(2), 21-46. http://www.myse.my/mysePaper/6_2_2.pdf
Owoseni, A., Ibem, E., & Opoko, A. (2020). Impact of physical learning environment on students’ learning outcomes in secondary schools in Lagos State, Nigeria. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(8), 3635–3642. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080841
Peng, L., Deng, Y., & Jin, S. (2022). The evaluation of active learning classrooms: Impact of spatial factors on students’ learning experience and learning engagement. Sustainability, 14(8), Article 4839. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084839
Reeve, J. (2013). How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: The concept of agentic engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 579–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032690
Shernoff, D. J., Ruzek, E. A., & Sinha, S. (2016). The influence of the high school classroom environment on learning as mediated by student engagement. School Psychology International, 38(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034316666413
Tobia, V., Riva, P., Caprin, C., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2022). The influence of classroom seating arrangement on children’s cognitive processes in primary school: The role of individual variables. Current Psychology, 41(9), 6522–6533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01154-9
Wickremasinghe, H. T., & Kumuduni, W. (2021). The impact of physical learning environment on undergraduates’ academic engagement in an online learning setting during COVID-19: Evidence from a Sri Lankan university. Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Management, 18. https://doi.org/10.31357/icbm.v18.5898
Zheng, Z., Zeng, M., Huang, W., & Sun, N. (2024). The influence of university library environment on student interactions and college students’ learning engagement. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02892-y
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 JESSAH - Isabela State University Linker: Journal of Education, Social Sciences and Allied Health
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
